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Sharp razors of rock barely softened by snow rise as if to slash the skies and in their wide, bold swipes of basalt, gneiss and granite create some of the most dramatic landscapes on Earth. Arguably the world’s grandest mountain system, the Himalayas rest on India's brow and have given the state of Himachal Pradesh the core of its character. The process of forming this chain began in the Jurassic era, about eighty million years ago. At that time the Earth's land mass consisted of two giant continents - Gondwanaland in the south and Laurasia in the north. A huge chunk of land severed itself from upper Gondwanaland and swept right across the Sea of Tethys. Fifty million years later this giant engine hurled itself at the Asian continent. The sea was trapped in a vice-like grip and formed a vast inland lake till the march of the tectonic plates slowly drained it over the sides. The date palms that line some of the lower river valleys are regarded to be throwbacks to the time when there were vast sea beaches here. As the moving forces stayed on, the heights of Himalaya rose from the bottom of the bed and often enough, younger rock wormed its way under the older layers. Some of the deeper river-gorges still display the inner workings of this underground drama.

Legend does not vary with geological fact. The Indian epics speak of Lord Vishnu who lived on the edge of a great sea. His only companions were a pair of seagulls. The female would lay her eggs but the tide would creep up and destroy them, so the gulls asked Vishnu for help - and he drank up the sea. In its place stood the newly created Earth. As a tired Vishnu slept, the demon Hiranyaksha violated Mother Earth. In agony, her limbs reached out to the sky and became the Himalayas.

The Himalayas start from the Nanga Parbat massif in the Northwest and 2,560 kilometres later tapers off at the Namche Barwa peak in the East. Towards the western reaches, Himachal Pradesh holds some of its greatest treasures and the statement in the ancient Indian texts, the Puranas still rings true, “In a hundred ages of the Gods, I could not tell you of the wonders of the Himalaya.” The major ranges of Himachal are the Greater Himalaya, the Dhauladhar, the Pir Panjal and the Zanskar.

As almost a corollary to a grandeur that lends itself to grandiloquent words, it is these mountains that have determined much of the area’s history, culture and lifestyle. In the relative compactness of some 55,600 square kilometres, Himachal packs a rare range of geographical diversity. Low rolling hills, a couple of hundred metres above sea level, steadily climb to touch mountains that are several thousand metres high and while the highest peaks of the Himalaya lie further east, Himachal - which means ' the abode of eternal snow ' - has the ranges as a steady picture frame over almost all areas. North of the Shipki pass in the district of Kinnaur, home of the formidable Reo Purgyil at 6,816 metres, is the highest peak in Himachal. It lives up to its name, which loosely translates as the 'home of demons'. Cunningly sandwiched between them and connected by passes once known to dare-all traders, pilgrims and adventurers are the fabulous, almost lunar-like, tracts of the arid Trans Himalaya. The climate varies with location. Hot to mild in summer and mild to cold in winter. Most areas have the singular distinction of savouring five distinct seasons - spring, summer, the monsoons, autumn and invigorating winter. The bulk of human habitation in Himachal lies between 1,000 to 2,500 metres. Here, the river terraces are well developed and hold villages and towns. The climate is cool and comfortable and cultivation is easily possible.

The state can be broadly segregated by its valleys. And the main floors and the arterial ducts hold most of the towns and villages. The main ones are the lush Kangra valley, the Chamba valley, the rather remote Pangi valley, the arid Lahaul and Spiti valleys in the Trans Himalaya , the chocolate-box Kinnaur valley, the Parbati valley, the Giri valley and the Kullu valley. The town of Shimla and its peripheral areas do not strictly fall in these valley divisions and lie off the waters of the river Satluj.

In tandem with this diversity comes a vast range of flora and fauna. The outer fringe of Himachal is formed by the Siwalik hills which are characterised by shallow valleys, a rough topography, sharp water partings and low dense tropical scrub. The extravagance of the Indian sun mellows as the hills climb higher and tropical vegetation parts to woods of scented pine, which merge into forests of oak and flowering rhododendron. The mid-ranges have the majestic Himalayan cedars ( the legendary deodar ) and spruce. Then close to the snowline come stretches of fir, alder and birch. The chil pine which gives the tasty kernel, the chilgoza or neoza and huge elms and horse-chestnuts make cameo appearances. Wild flowers, a variety of ferns and grasses and rare medicinal herbs form the ground-cover. Vast meadows just under the sky are lined by juniper and lichens. Past the snow peaks, the land is largely arid for the monsoon rains - India's lifeline - are forced to remain south of this impassable barrier.

The deodar is considered to be one of the world’s four varieties of ‘true’ cedars. The other three come from the Mediterranean regions. One hails from the Atlas mountains of Morocco, another from Cyprus, while the third comes from Lebanon. Hindu mythology holds that the Bhagwan Shiva was meditating under a deodar tree, when Kamadeva, the god of love disturbed him. Angered, Shiva opened his third eye and burnt Kamadeva to cinders. As a result of this legend, the deodar has remained closely connected with the worship of Shiva in the western Himalaya. Often a tree is built near or around a special tree which is regarded as his embodiment. The deodar is often used as a tool by exorcists who claim to have driven away ghosts armed with just a branch of the tree and the all powerful Gayatri Mantra. Interestingly, there is also the belief in certain quarters that if a deodar tree is cut out of greed or for no real purpose it brings great misfortune to the person who has felled it and may even take a life in his household!

The birds and animals whose home Himachal has been for countless centuries includes pheasants like the brilliant monal, the State Bird whose colours can put rainbows in the shade. The great western tragopan has a story tucked in its feathers. After God had created all birds and animals, He still thought that He could do better and took a sliver of colour from every bird that was. He put them together to create the magnificent tragopan – that is locally called the Juju Rana, or ‘King of Birds’. Then there are partridges and patient kites, ibex, antelopes, deer – that include the musk – bears, the rare bharal and thar and the elusive snow leopard, of which only a dozen or so remain to pad the heights of the Great Himalayan National Park.

With waters of pure snow-melt often augmented by rain, thousands of streams race through deep boulder-strewn gorges and wide valleys of considerable beauty. These feed several rivers of the Indian subcontinent, which finally pour their wash into the waters of the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. The largest rivers of Himachal are the Ravi, the Beas, the Satluj, the Chandrabhaga (or Chenab) and the Tons that feeds its flow into the Yamuna. Across acres of scree are glaciers that are as old as the mountains themselves. Scores of secluded tarns (the Chandratal in trans-Himalayan Lahaul) like dark jewels sprinkle over the snows - Spiti has been included in the Ramsar Convention of International Wetlands. The immense man-made lake, the Maharana Pratap Sagar (formerly, the Pong Dam Reservoir) and Himachal’s largest natural lake, the Renuka, have also been adopted by the Convention. While most lakes are home to a variety of resident and migratory birds and a host of aquatic life, the Sagar is a declared bird sanctuary and over 220 species belonging to 54 families have been sighted, including black-headed gulls, plovers, terns, ducks, water-fowl and egrets. The first sighting in the region of the red-necked grebe was made at the Sagar. The lake’s location at the head of the Indian plains has made it a suitable habitat and stopover for migratory birds that enter India from Central Asia.

Most of the lakes and rivers have fascinating legends attached to them. For example, the rivers Chandra and Bhaga combine to form the Chandrabhaga in trans-Himalayan Lahaul. A folktale speaks of Chandra, the daughter of the moon and Bhaga, son of the sun. Both fell in love and decided to have a marriage that would last forever and to sanctify this, they decided to circle of all of Lahaul and then meet. After great difficulty, they managed to reach Tandi where they are still united.

Himachal is a tract where the freshest of leaves are nurtured by roots that go centuries deep; their nourishment has come from scores of different strands. Aside from the pockets of British India that came into being only in the 18th century, Himachal was divided into several hereditary kingdoms. After India's independence on 15th August 1947, these integrated with the union of India. The state of Himachal Pradesh came into being the following year on 14th April 1948 and was granted full statehood on 25th January 1971. Today’s Himachal is a vibrant place that has become a role-model for the other Indian hill states and has focused on the three pillars of mountain economies for its growth – hydro-electricity, horticulture and tourism. Its economic and social indicators are among the best in India.

Pre-historic sites backed by the excavation of stone-age tools have been located in the districts of Una, Bilaspur, Kangra and Sirmaur. There are also inferences of Harappan and subsequent ancient civilisations. The ancient Indian epic, the Mahabharata, records the region to have held small tribal republics, Janapadas, and these are regarded to be the successors of the Mavanas which were territorial units controlled by local strongmen. But migration with all its cultural influences has marked the development of the people of Himachal. The descendents of many remain to the present day and Kolarian and Indo-Aryan language speakers are regarded to be amongst the earliest people. Coins and excavations stand testimony to large and prosperous communities in the centuries before Christ; indeed a hoard of punch-marked coins from Kangra has been dated between the seventh and eighth century BC. The rise and fall of the great empires of northern India sent their own eddies into the hills and the Rajput states have left an indelible impression over Himachal, many of which were founded by adventurers or chieftains fleeing the rise the imperial Mughals. The rise of the martial Gurkhas in neighbouring Nepal in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries led to a marauding force that was finally expelled by the British, who in turn established their own spheres of influence.

Till the arrival of the British in the hills and the dramatic altering of at least the urban landscape – and with the shift of focus to the ‘hill-stations’ – Himachal’s landscape was dominated by a subsistence economy which was agro-pastoral in character. Commercial agriculture was minimal and of this, opium was the only significant crop. In trade, barter was the norm. Villages varied in size from the single house, a dochi, to something larger that could hold several dozen or more residences. The towns were few and far between and these were characterised by four core components that gave them their character – the court, the bazaar, the fort and the temple. These were normally both the administrative centre with the seat of the ruler as well as the marketplace. Invariably, towns had strong links with the countryside from where all food, fodder and fuel came, and expectedly their size was in proportion to the importance of both the market and the state.

The reasons for the settling of the numerous villages and hamlets across Himachal were identical - the availability of arable land and water. For example, the valley of the river Beas and those of its large and small tributaries with wide fertile lands contributed to some of the most important towns and to some of the greatest density of population as it flowed through Kullu, Mandi and Kangra.

Agricultural holdings were rarely held in a consolidated place and it was more the norm than the exception that an agriculturist would have his fields at different locations. There could be something higher up the hill and something lower down near the valley floor. While there was normally one ‘permanent’ house, it was also possible that there would also be a temporary one too, where the family moved in either summer, or more often in winter, to a warmer valley floor. Rice, millet and wheat were the main crops grown and the best land under cultivation was owned or controlled by the ruling classes. By and large, with varying quality, at least some land was owned by most families who took pride in being called zamindars. The definition of zamindar in Himachal was different to other parts of the country, where it denoted a landlord or collector of revenue; here it simply meant a man who owned land. The wealth of a ruler or a former small princely state was often measured not only by the amount of cultivated land that was with him but also by the number of cultivators that he had in his territory. This also led to a very visible characteristic of the villages and one that defined the architectural patterns from region to region, from a village along the valley floor to one that was set high up the hill – they were built with what was at hand or was within easy carrying distance. Exceptions, if any, were in the ‘palaces’ of these areas, where resources and materials were summoned from considerable distances too.

The smaller thakurais, the chiefdoms, had a kothi or thakurdwara, that is the house and lands of the chief, placed in a prominent position. This would also house the deity. The structure would be at least double storied. Close to this would be an open space used for fairs and some shops. The higher castes and important people would have their houses in the best positions while the lower castes would normally be at the fringes. The role of the village deity, the devta, was at the core of establishing and maintaining social relationships within the village. Through him the ruler established his legitimacy and through the devta the people carried their grievances to the ruler. He was the repository of grain kept for an emergency and he was the final sanction giver of loans for weddings or deaths.

The towns have different story to tell and every one is a little different. The growth of each has stemmed from different factors which could be as varied as the location of a sacred site, political requirements, markets and trade, defence, mining – or become a combination of two or more of these factors. Then, the river basins played an important part in the siting of towns. Along the Beas were Sultanpur (‘Old Kullu’), Mandi, Nadaun and Sujanpur. The towns of Rampur and Bilaspur lay along the Satluj. Chamba was by the Ravi while smaller rivers like the Pabbar had the seat of Jubbal, the Chandrabhaga had Gondhla and the Spiti had Kaza. The Kangra region had also been buoyed by the decline of the Mughal empire and the invasions of both Nadir Shah and Ahmed Shah Abdali and their sacking of the plains.

Pre-colonial towns were invariably the capitals of princely states or important centres of pilgrimage or trade and the size of the town was in direct proportion to the importance of the state as well as its trading role. The bazaar was well woven into the morphological pattern of every town. Long distance trade along the old trade routes played a significant role. Traders who went to Kullu for the Dusshehra fair were also present at the Lavi fair in Rampur a couple of months later and both towns owed a substantial measure of their prosperity to these traders. For example, when it was decide to settle the town of Rampur, traders were invited from the town of Raipur Rani to settle there and their descendents still control a substantial measure of its business. Three lamps were lit along the valley floor and at the point where they remained burning through the night, the town grew. Similarly, the town of Mandi was an important pre-colonial town and despite its relatively small size at that point of time, it had a pre-eminent position as important trade routes passed through it and led to Yarkand, Ladakh and Hoshiarpur.

The mosaic of architecture is equally varied. Pastoral hamlets where time seems to have stood still for centuries hold folk architecture at its finest and would have once seemed quite immutable. It had grown out of the land, fulfilled local needs, used local materials, drew on local culture and within its own frame was highly evolved and functional The kathkuni or kathkundi style of building is something unique to this part of the world. Here, a towering mesh of interlocking, horizontal cedar sleepers is created in which dressed or raw stone is packed. A singular characteristic is the absence of vertical members. With inherent elasticity, the design has substantial seismic response - there have been instances where tremors have dislodged the stones from the mesh and later been hammered back. Houses and temples in the style are present in the districts of Shimla, Kinnaur and Kullu and the Bhimakali temple complex at Sarahan is perhaps its most resplendent example.

Walls of rammed earth are popular all over Himachal and in the treeless tracts of the Trans Himalaya some stunning architecture has been created on seemingly insurmountable sites – the Buddhist monasteries of Spiti and Lahaul are cases in point. The quality of dressed or carved stone has created remarkable temples, forts and residences. Fine slate or slabs of quartzite have provided roofing material.

Tradition has also dictated certain rituals, beliefs and ceremonies in the construction of houses. The Indian calendar months of Baisakh, Poh, Magh and Phalgun are regarded as auspicious for the start of construction. Ideally, the main aspect of the house should face east - and the rising sun. Given the topography of most of the state, this is not always possible and a northern or western orientation is acceptable. The house must never face south as that is considered to impoverish the family. The medium (goor, chela or mali) of the local deity plays a major role in site selection and in placing the foundations of the house. He prays either at the site itself or over a sod or stone brought from the place where the house is to be built. He then divines an auspicious time for the start of construction. Along with the master builder (chanahara or thavi), the person who is building the house goes to the site well before dawn. Certain auspicious items are carried along and prayers are offered. The corner stone is then placed and the endeavour is to set the first line of stones before light, so that the keystone remains secret. Elaborate rituals are also observed when the main door-frame and the roof-beam are placed.

With the coming of the Europeans, Himachal added another dimension to its rich architectural heritage. Shimla, the state capital has some of the world’s finest examples of British-colonial architecture. While many were monuments of imperial might, the houses that drew on the Western experience for both inspiration and design had a composition that was European, while the structural elements were quite indigenous. In many cases, local workers using local materials on local principles have created cottages straight out of Surrey and chalets from the Swiss-Bavarian Alps. Apart from Shimla, colonial structures can be found all over the state, especially in the hill stations of Kasauli and Dalhousie.

Unlike many other of the world’s mountain ranges which have been regarded as the homes of demons and evil spirits, the Himalayas have largely been considered sacred and benign. To these heights retreated the sages of yore and many spots are regarded as places where individual deities reside. Expectedly, Himachal has hundreds of large and small temples scattered all over the hills. The state has some of Hinduism’s important shaktipeeths, where the female divine is venerated, and from the rivers that feed the wide ocean of Hindu lore flows the story of their creation. There was a time in the distant past when demons lorded over the Himalaya mountains and harassed the gods and all good people. After a long sequence of events led by Bhagwan Vishnu, the gods prepared to destroy the demons. They breathed fire and poured their strengths to a focus. A huge flame rose from the ground and the gods saw that a young girl had taken birth. She was the primordial embodiment of female strength and power.

Known as Sati (or Parvati) in time the young girl became the consort of Bhagwan Shiva. Once, Sati's father organised a huge sacrifice and all the gods and kings were invited - except Shiva and Sati. When Sati came to hear of this, she decided to find a welcome for herself. At the yagya she found that no seat had been kept for her husband and the only welcome she received was from her mother. In anguish she cried, "I do not wish to keep the body to which my father has given birth." She threw herself on the flames of the yagya and died. When Shiva heard of this his rage knew no bounds and holding the charred body of his wife he began stalking the three worlds with a wrath that could bring all creation to an end. The other gods trembled and appealed to Vishnu for help. Vishnu let fly a volley of arrows that struck Sati's body and severed it to pieces. Across the country, where the pieces fell, rose the fifty-one shaktipeeths.

Under the gaze of the Dhauladhar ranges and set amidst the undulating hills that characterise sub-Himalayan Himachal her tongue is regarded to have fallen at Jwalamukhi (Jawalaji), her eyes at Naina Devi, her breasts at Kangra and her feet at Chintapurni. Higher in the hills, the temple of Bhimakali at Sarahan is also considered as a shaktipeeth.

The visibility of Buddhism in Himachal increased after His Holiness the Dalai Lama made it his home in exile from Tibet. Protected by the high wall of mountains, for centuries a veil of mystery had surrounded the tracts of Spiti and Lahaul. Thin slivers of information brought out by western explorers and adventurers only served to further mist an already ephemeral image. In these vast arid areas and across an ethereal landscape the tiny villages and Buddhist monasteries lay locked in isolation. This was where the wandering buzens smashed boulders with their bare hands and plunged swords that emerged bloodless through their bodies. This was where long horns, cymbals and drums enacted age-old dance dramas. Some of the shrouds of awe and fancy may have lifted, but yet, a mystic aura and its sense of peace and enchantment remain.

"As the dew-drop slips into the shining sea", the teachings of the Buddha ‘The Enlightened One' (563–483 BC) sought for the individual to merge with the Universal Life. He could thus attain nirvana and end the cycle of birth and rebirth. Twelve long centuries after the Buddha attained nirvana, the Tibetan King Songtsen Gampo, who ruled from 618 to 649 AD, married Wen Cheng from the court of China's Tang dynasty and Bkrikuti Devi, a Nepalese princess. Under their influence, Buddhism slowly developed in the Central Himalayan and Trans Himalayan regions of Tibet, Spiti, Lahaul and Ladakh till it became the predominant faith.

A great impetus came when King Trison Detsen (Khri-Sron Ide bTsan, 755 - 797 AD) of Tibet embraced the teachings of the Buddha. He sent to India for great masters like Santarakshita and the famous teacher and tantric Padmasambhava. Under Padmasambhava's influence, Mahayana Buddhism, the 'Greater Vehicle' fanned over the world's highest plateaux, Rewalsar, with its little lake is just off the town of Mandi. This is the point from where Padmasambhava is regarded to have used his enormous powers to ‘take flight’ to Tibet and the tiny clusters of floating reed on the waters are said to embody his spirit. When the kingdom of Guge rose in western Tibet, it encompassed the present day tracts of Spiti, Lahaul, Zanskar and upper Kinnaur in present-day Himachal Pradesh. The strong cultural and religious identity of the region dates back to those years.

At a time in the region when the word of the Buddha was a sapling without shade, the monastery of Tabo in Spiti was founded in 996 AD by the great teacher Rinchensang-po. Today, its sanctity is held just a notch away from the Tholing gompa and this holds a breathtaking array of stucco statues and murals. Still locked away from the world that lay south of the mountains and maintaining precious few ties with China that lay north this world within a world let the centuries flow on as its swift rivers did. Religion and polity fused and the monasteries were the founts of life. There were invasions no doubt, but unaccustomed to the inhospitable climate the marauding armies took what they could and fled before the snows came. Traders and their determined caravans passed through, leaving little marks but carrying away indelible impressions. Spiti, Lahaul and Kinnaur have several ancient monasteries that date back to those long gone years. Then there are more recent ones too, like the Namgyal monastery at McLeodganj ( Dharamsala ), the seat of the Dalai Lama.

Adding to the diversity of religious places in Himachal are the dozen or so churches that were built once British presence was established in the hills. Shimla was the ‘summer capital’ of British India and from its sylvan heights one-fifth of the human race was ruled for well over a century. Here, the neo-Gothic Christ Church tells the story of a part of the town’s rich history with pews that still mark the seats of the Viceroy, the Commander-in-Chief and the Lieutenant-Governor of the Punjab, while the fascinating memorial tablets sound a roll call of Empire. St. Michael’s Cathedral of the town’s Catholic community is built with a partial though elegant vocabulary of the French-Gothic style. The exterior is of dressed grey stone and the floor plan follows a cruciform. While Christ Church and St. Michael’s are Shimla’s most prominent churches, there are other minor luminaries too. In Himachal’s apple growing heartland, Kotgarh, is the attractive wooden church of St. Mary, built in 1873 and still standing in a little nook surrounded by fruit-laden orchards. In Shimla’s neighbourhood, in time-locked Kasauli’s gentle ambience, there is a church on its little Mall and another down in the cobbled bazaar, and within an arm’s reach of Kasauli, the settlements of Subathu and Dagshai have small old churches too.

Placed at the end of a long diagonal from Shimla is the town of Dalhousie. Its 'old world' architecture has been garnished with four attractive churches. One of Himachal's most charming churches is at Dharamsala - just short of McLeodganj. The Church of St. John in the Wilderness lies in a sheltered grove of high cedars. Like a blessing over the valley it has a commanding location on the hillside. Within its compound is an obelisk erected in memory of the Viceroy, Lord Elgin (1862-1863) by his wife Mary. There is another church of St. John in the Wilderness in the nearby town of Palampur, which is famous for its attractive countryside and tea gardens.

Today’s Himachal is still predominantly rural and agrarian, and over ninety percent of its population lives in villages. The state is divided into twelve administrative districts and culturally, the state has three reasonably well defined zones. The ‘tribal belt’ that holds the districts of Kinnaur, Lahaul and Spiti is largely Buddhist and the language belongs to the Himalayan belt of Tibeto-Burmese. Himachal’s sub-montane dwellers practise settled cultivation and again, are largely Hindu. The people of the latter two are speakers of Pahari.

These elements have woven an unusual fabric, where each little design contributes to the impact of the tapestry. The numerous fairs and festivals are a one such aspect. Most of these are a celebration of life, or have religious or agrarian roots. One of the most spectacular festivals is the Dussehra celebration at Kullu, in October. This commemorates the victory of Bhagwan Ram over the demon king, Ravana – an event that has come to symbolise the triumph of good over evil in Indian tradition. The Dhalpur Maidan, the chariot of Lord Raghunath (as Bhagwan Ram is known in the valley), is wheeled out of the temple and the celebrations begin when the image of the goddess Hadimba Devi arrives from neighbouring Manali. Some two hundred deities from all over the area also gather to pay tribute to Lord Raghunath and the first day is marked by the homage. The following nine days are full of rituals, dancing, singing and performances. The festival is full of interesting sidelights. The enigmatic deity of the village of Malana, Jamlu, comes into his image for the festival but does not join in the celebrations - Jamlu and his worshippers only watch the proceeding from the opposite bank of the river Beas. Another deity is carried in by his worshippers who run without pause through the Dhalpur Maidan - and leave in equal haste!

Of the many handicrafts and art forms that belong to Himachal, perhaps none is as unique as its miniature paintings where the annals of Indian art culminated into a sophisticated lyricism. The creations were clearly two dimensional with few artifices and were as varied as ‘album’ miniatures, portraits, court scenes, battles and hunting expeditions. And as the snows of the Himalaya gazed down, the Pahari – literally, ‘of the hills’ – paintings, bloomed with grace, rhythm and beauty. It was in the closing decades of the seventeenth century that the paintings began emerging in a steady stream, though isolated pieces can be dated a little earlier. Love, more devotional than carnal, with all its joys and pains is the main theme of most images. A. K. Coomaraswamy, the man who discovered this treasure for the world observed, “What Chinese art achieved for landscape is here accomplished for human love”.

Stepping away from the controlled movement of the brush, the rhythm of this wonderful part of the world perhaps lies in the steps of its dances. There is the warlike Thoda where archers aim at the padded legs of a dancer who leaps to avoid the arrows and then, there is timelessness Naati, where with arms interlocked, the dancers move with a sway that their ancestors had long before them.

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